Episode 55. Actium: The End of the Republic and the Hellenistic World

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Works CitedPrimary Sources

Cassius Dio. Roman History, Books 50–51. The fullest ancient narrative of Actium; read with awareness of the Augustan shadow.
Horace. Odes 1.37 (the Cleopatra ode). The most complex poetic response to the battle and its aftermath.
Plutarch. Life of Antony, chapters 60–86. The essential account of the final years, Actium, and the deaths.
Suetonius. Life of Augustus. Essential for Augustus's own account of his constitutional arrangements and the Eutychus anecdote.
Tacitus. Annals, Book 1 opening. The indispensable counter-reading; the most compressed and precise analysis of what the principate actually was.
Virgil. Aeneid, Book 8. The shield of Aeneas; the Augustan ideological framework at its most artistically powerful.

Secondary Sources

Carter, John. The Battle of Actium. Hamish Hamilton, 1970. The most focused scholarly treatment of the battle itself and the strategic question of what the plan actually was.
Goldsworthy, Adrian. Augustus: First Emperor of Rome. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2014. The best modern biography; presents the principate as improvised rather than planned, which is probably closer to the truth.
Roller, Duane. Cleopatra: A Biography. Oxford University Press, 2010. The most scholarly modern treatment; essential on the question of the asp versus prepared poison.
Schiff, Stacy. Cleopatra: A Life. Little, Brown, 2010. The most readable modern account; particularly strong on Cleopatra's death and the sources' disagreements about it.
Syme, Ronald. The Roman Revolution. Oxford University Press, 1939. The foundational modern analysis of how Augustus built his power; still indispensable after eighty years.

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